| 1600s | |
|---|---|
| 1619 — | Guasco, Michael. “The Misguided Focus on 1619 as the Beginning of Slavery in the U.S. Damages Our Understanding of American History.” Smithsonian Magazine, Smithsonian Magazine, 13 Sept. 2017, www.smithsonianmag.com/history/misguided-focus-1619-beginning-slavery-us-damages-our-understanding-american-history-180964873. |
| 1644 — | “BLACKS BEFORE THE LAW IN COLONIAL MARYLAND.” Maryland State Archives, Maryland State Archives, 14 Nov. 2000, msa.maryland.gov/msa/speccol/sc5300/sc5348/html/chap3.html. |
| 1700s | |
|---|---|
| 1704 — | Waxman, Olivia. “How the U.S. Got Its Police Force.” Time, Time USA, LLC, 18 May 2017, time.com/4779112/police-history-origins. Hassett-Walker, Connie. “The Racist Roots of American Policing: From Slave Patrols to Traffic Stops.” The Conversation, 4 June 2019, theconversation.com/the-racist-roots-of-american-policing-from-slave-patrols-to-traffic-stops-112816. |
| 1705 — | “Slavery and the Making of America . Timeline | PBS.” Thirteen, Educational Broadcasting Corporation, 2004, www.thirteen.org/wnet/slavery/timeline/1705.html. “Africans in America/Part 1/Virginia’s Slave Codes.” PBS, 1998, www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1p268.html. |
| 1735 — | London, The Linnean Society Of. “Linnaeus and Race.” The Linnean Society, 24 May 2021, www.linnean.org/learning/who-was-linnaeus/linnaeus-and-race. |
| 1775 — | “Africans in America/Part 3/Founding of Pennsylvania Abolition Society.” PBS, 1998, www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p249.html. “Pennsylvania Abolition Society.” Pennsylvania Abolition Society, www.paabolition.org. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021. |
| 1790 — | Howard, L. “Some Facts About London’s Role in Insuring the Slave Trade.” Insurance Journal, 20 June 2020, www.insurancejournal.com/news/international/2020/06/19/572859.htm. “Learning from our Past.” Lloyds, November 2023, www.lloyds.com/about-lloyds/history/the-trans-atlantic-slave-trade/learning-from-our-past. Accessed November 30, 2023. |
| 1800s | |
|---|---|
| 1808 — | History.com Editors. “Congress Abolishes the African Slave Trade.” HISTORY, 1 Mar. 2021, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/congress-abolishes-the-african-slave-trade. |
| 1810 — | Partin, Elliot. “The African Insurance Company (1810-1813).” BlackPast.org, 4 January 2011, www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/african-insurance-company-1810-1813/. Accessed 16 January 2023. Hustin, William. “Black-Owned Life Insurance Companies.” Bay Street Capital Holdings, 4 September 2021, www.baystreetcapitalholdings.com/black-owned-life-insurance-companies. Accessed 16 January 2023. |
| 1840s — | Ralph, Michael, and William Rankin. “Decoder: The Slave Insurance Market.” Foreign Policy, 16 Jan. 2017, foreignpolicy.com/2017/01/16/decoder-slave-insurance-market-aetna-aig-new-york-life. |
| 1863 — | “What Is Juneteenth? – Juneteenth World Wide Celebration.” Juneteenth, www.juneteenth.com/history. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021. “Emancipation Proclamation.” HISTORY, 17 June 2021, www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/emancipation-proclamation. |
| 1865 — | History.com Editors. “Black Codes.” HISTORY, 21 Jan. 2021, www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-codes. |
| 1875 — | Wolff, Megan. “The Myth Of The Actuary: Life Insurance And Frederick L. Hoffman’s Race Traits And Tendencies Of The American Negro.” NCBI, 2006, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497788. “U.S. Senate: Landmark Legislation: Civil Rights Act of 1875.” United States Senate, 2 Jan. 2020, www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/CivilRightsAct1875.htm. Wright-Mendoza, Jessie. “How Insurance Companies Used Bad Science to Discriminate.” JSTOR Daily, 18 Feb. 2019, daily.jstor.org/how-insurance-companies-used-bad-science-to-discriminate. |
| 1880 — | Wolff, Megan. “The Myth Of The Actuary: Life Insurance And Frederick L. Hoffman’s Race Traits And Tendencies Of The American Negro.” NCBI, 2006, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497788. Ekuonline. “The History of Policing in the United States, Part 1.” EKU Online, 20 Aug. 2021, ekuonline.eku.edu/blog/police-studies/the-history-of-policing-in-the-united-states-part-1. Waxman, Olivia. “How the U.S. Got Its Police Force.” Time, Time USA, LLC, 18 May 2017, time.com/4779112/police-history-origins. Hassett-Walker, Connie. “The Racist Roots of American Policing: From Slave Patrols to Traffic Stops.” The Conversation, 4 June 2019, theconversation.com/the-racist-roots-of-american-policing-from-slave-patrols-to-traffic-stops-112816. |
| 1890 — | Law Library of Louisiana. “LibGuides: Literacy Tests: Louisiana’s Legal Barriers.” The Law Library of Louisiana, 2021, lasc.libguides.com/c.php?g=940581&p=6825590. Cianci Salvatore, Susan, et al. “Civil Rights in America: Racial Voting Rights.” National Park Service, National Historic Landmarks Program, 2009, www.nps.gov/subjects/tellingallamericansstories/upload/CivilRights_VotingRights.pdf. |
| 1896 — | Wolff, Megan. “The Myth Of The Actuary: Life Insurance And Frederick L. Hoffman’s Race Traits And Tendencies Of The American Negro.” NCBI, 2006, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497788. |
| 1900s | |
|---|---|
| 1900 — | Maloney, Thomas. “African Americans in the Twentieth Century.” Economic History Association, eh.net/encyclopedia/african-americans-in-the-twentieth-century. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021. Johnson, James. “The Black National Anthem •.” Blackpast, 10 June 2019, www.blackpast.org/black-past-features/black-national-anthem. |
| 1910 — | Brown, DeNeen. “Remembering ‘Red Summer,’ When White Mobs Massacred Blacks from Tulsa to D.C.” History, 4 May 2021, www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/remembering-red-summer-white-mobs-massacred-blacks-tulsa-dc. Garrison, Arthur. “Your View: A History of White Race Riots in America.” The Morning Call, 12 June 2020, www.tribpub.com/gdpr/mcall.com. “Ku Klux Klan.” HISTORY, 20 Apr. 2021, www.history.com/topics/reconstruction/ku-klux-klan. |
| 1914 — | Bryan, Charles A., FCAS. “100 Years of Expertise, Insight, and Solutions - A History of the Casualty Actuarial Society”. 2014, https://www.casact.org/sites/default/files/2021-03/Centennial_Book_Complete.pdf. |
| 1930 — | “A ‘Forgotten History’ Of How The U.S. Government Segregated America.” NPR, 3 May 2017, choice.npr.org/index.html?origin=https://www.npr.org/2017/05/03/526655831/a-forgotten-history-of-how-the-u-s-government-segregated-america. Madrigal, Alexis. “The Racist Housing Policy That Made Your Neighborhood.” The Atlantic, 27 July 2021, www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2014/05/the-racist-housing-policy-that-made-your-neighborhood/371439. |
| 1938 — | Kickler, Troy. “Asa Spaulding (1902–1990).” North Carolina History Project, 7 Mar. 2016, northcarolinahistory.org/encyclopedia/asa-spaulding-1902-1990. |
| 1944 — | Blakemore, Erin. “How the GI Bill’s Promise Was Denied to a Million Black WWII Veterans.” HISTORY, 20 Apr. 2021, www.history.com/news/gi-bill-black-wwii-veterans-benefits. Joseph Thompson, Mississippi State University. “The Blinding of a WWII Vet Opened America’s Eyes to the Evil of Jim Crow.” Military Times, 10 Nov. 2019, www.militarytimes.com/military-honor/salute-veterans/2019/11/10/the-gi-bill-shouldve-been-race-neutral-politicos-made-sure-it-wasnt. “The Impact of Structural Racism on Black Americans (Report).” Catalyst, 15 June 2021, www.catalyst.org/research/structural-racism-black-americans. Barr, Andrew, et al. “YOU CAN’T HANDLE THE TRUTH: THE EFFECTS OF THE GI BILL ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND EARNINGS.” Syracuse University Maxwell School of Citizenship & Public Affairs, www.maxwell.syr.edu/uploadedFiles/econ/seminars/Paper%20-%20Sacerdote.pdf. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021. |
| 1946 — | “Records of the President’s Committee on Civil Rights Record Group 220 | Harry S. Truman.” Harry S. Truman Library Museum, www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/federal-record/records-presidents-committee-civil-rights-record-group-220. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021. “To Secure These Rights | Harry S. Truman.” Harry S. Truman Library Museum, www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/to-secure-these-rights. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021. |
| 1952 — | McLellan, Laurie. “Pioneering CAS Fellows: Linda Shepherd and Ollie Sherman Reflect on their Careers.” Actuarial Review Magazine, Casualty Actuarial Society, 27 January 2021, ar.casact.org/pioneering-cas-fellows-linda-shepherd-and-ollie-sherman-reflect-on-their-careers/. Accessed 6 January 2023. “The SOA’s First Black Fellow.” The Actuary Magazine, Society of Actuaries, August/September 2019, www.theactuarymagazine.org/the-soas-first-black-fellow/. Accessed 16 January 2023. |
| 1964 — | Heen, Mary. “Ending Jim Crow Life Insurance Rates.” Northwestern Journal of Law & Social Policy, 2009, scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=njlsp. “Civil Rights Act of 1964.” HISTORY, 25 Jan. 2021, www.history.com/topics/black-history/civil-rights-act. |
| 1964 — | Mbm. “The Consequences of the 1960’s Race Riots Come Into View.” AfricanAmerica.Org, 30 Dec. 2004, www.africanamerica.org/topic/the-consequences-of-the-1960s-race-riots-come-into-view. “Why People Rioted After Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Assassination.” HISTORY, 17 June 2021, www.history.com/news/mlk-assassination-riots-occupation. Garrison, Arthur. “Your View: A History of White Race Riots in America.” The Morning Call, 12 June 2020, www.tribpub.com/gdpr/mcall.com. |
| 1968 — | “History of Fair Housing - HUD | HUD.Gov / U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD).” U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, www.hud.gov/program_offices/fair_housing_equal_opp/aboutfheo/history. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021. Capps, Kriston. “How the Fair Housing Act Failed Black Homeowners.” Bloomberg, 11 Apr. 2018, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-11/50-years-after-the-fair-housing-act-redlining-persists. |
| 1992 — | Arland, Jamala & Deeble, Jason. “A Tale of Two Actuaries.” International Association of Black Actuaries, 6 October 2020, cdn.ymaws.com/www.blackactuaries.org/resource/resmgr/newsletters/a_tale_of_two_actuaries.pdf. Accessed 16 January 2023. |
| 2000s | |
|---|---|
| 2000 — | The Poynter Institute. “Maligned in Black and White: Southern Newspapers Played a Major Role in Racial Violence. Do They Owe Their Communities an Apology?” Poynter, 1 Sept. 2020, www.poynter.org/maligned-in-black-white. |
| 2015 — | Feltner, Tom, and Douglas Heller. “High Price of Mandatory Auto Insurance in Predominantly African American Communities.” Consumer Federation of America, Nov. 2015, consumerfed.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/151118_insuranceinpredominantlyafricanamericancommunities_CFA.pdf. ProPublica. “Minority Neighborhoods Pay Higher Car Insurance Premiums Than White Areas With the Same Risk.” ProPublica, 29 Feb. 2020, www.propublica.org/article/minority-neighborhoods-higher-car-insurance-premiums-white-areas-same-risk. |
| 2018 — | “The Journey of African-American Insurance Professionals.” Marsh &McLennan Companies, September 2018, www.marsh.com/us/about/about-marsh/diversity-and-inclusion-marsh/insights/the-journey-of-african-american-insurance-professionals.html. Accessed 6 January 2023. “Actuarial Organizations Explore Ways to Support Inclusion and Diversity Within the Profession.” Casualty Actuarial Society, 13 December 2017, www.casact.org/article/actuarial-organizations-explore-ways-support-inclusion-and-diversity-within-profession. Accessed 16 January 2023. Arland, Jamala & Deeble, Jason. “A Tale of Two Actuaries.” International Association of Black Actuaries, 6 October 2020, cdn.ymaws.com/www.blackactuaries.org/resource/resmgr/newsletters/a_tale_of_two_actuaries.pdf. Accessed 16 January 2023. |
| 2019 — | “H.R.1270 - 117th Congress (2021–2022): PAID Act.” Congress.Gov | Library of Congress, 2021, www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/1270. “H.R.1756 - 116th Congress (2019–2020): Preventing Credit Score Discrimination in Auto Insurance Act.” Congress.Gov | Library of Congress, 2019, www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/1756. |
| 2022 — | Thompson, Stafford Jr. “The Changing Face of the Actuarial Profession.” The Actuary Magazine, Society of Actuaries, August 2022, www.theactuarymagazine.org/the-changing-face-of-the-actuarial-profession/. Accessed 6 January 2023. “Research Paper Series on Race and Insurance Pricing.” Casualty Actuarial Society, March 2022, www.casact.org/publications-research/research/research-paper-series-race-and-insurance-pricing. Accessed 16 January 2023. |
| 2023 — | “Underwriting Souls.” Black Beyond Data, November 2023, underwritingsouls.org. Accessed November 30, 2023. “Learning from our Past.” Lloyds, November 2023, www.lloyds.com/about-lloyds/history/the-trans-atlantic-slave-trade/learning-from-our-past. Accessed November 30, 2023. |