Sources

1600s
1619 —Guasco, Michael. “The Misguided Focus on 1619 as the Beginning of Slavery in the U.S. Damages Our Understanding of American History.” Smithsonian Magazine, Smithsonian Magazine, 13 Sept. 2017, www.smithsonianmag.com/history/misguided-focus-1619-beginning-slavery-us-damages-our-understanding-american-history-180964873.
1644 —“BLACKS BEFORE THE LAW IN COLONIAL MARYLAND.” Maryland State Archives, Maryland State Archives, 14 Nov. 2000, msa.maryland.gov/msa/speccol/sc5300/sc5348/html/chap3.html.
1700s
1704 —

Waxman, Olivia. “How the U.S. Got Its Police Force.” Time, Time USA, LLC, 18 May 2017, time.com/4779112/police-history-origins.

Hassett-Walker, Connie. “The Racist Roots of American Policing: From Slave Patrols to Traffic Stops.” The Conversation, 4 June 2019, theconversation.com/the-racist-roots-of-american-policing-from-slave-patrols-to-traffic-stops-112816.

1705 —

“Slavery and the Making of America . Timeline | PBS.” Thirteen, Educational Broadcasting Corporation, 2004, www.thirteen.org/wnet/slavery/timeline/1705.html.

“Africans in America/Part 1/Virginia’s Slave Codes.” PBS, 1998, www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1p268.html.

1735 —London, The Linnean Society Of. “Linnaeus and Race.” The Linnean Society, 24 May 2021, www.linnean.org/learning/who-was-linnaeus/linnaeus-and-race.
1775 —

“Africans in America/Part 3/Founding of Pennsylvania Abolition Society.” PBS, 1998, www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p249.html.

“Pennsylvania Abolition Society.” Pennsylvania Abolition Society, www.paabolition.org. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021.

1790 —

Howard, L. “Some Facts About London’s Role in Insuring the Slave Trade.” Insurance Journal, 20 June 2020, www.insurancejournal.com/news/international/2020/06/19/572859.htm.

“Learning from our Past.” Lloyds, November 2023, www.lloyds.com/about-lloyds/history/the-trans-atlantic-slave-trade/learning-from-our-past. Accessed November 30, 2023.

1800s
1808 —History.com Editors. “Congress Abolishes the African Slave Trade.” HISTORY, 1 Mar. 2021, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/congress-abolishes-the-african-slave-trade.
1810 —

Partin, Elliot. “The African Insurance Company (1810-1813).” BlackPast.org, 4 January 2011, www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/african-insurance-company-1810-1813/. Accessed 16 January 2023.

Hustin, William. “Black-Owned Life Insurance Companies.” Bay Street Capital Holdings, 4 September 2021, www.baystreetcapitalholdings.com/black-owned-life-insurance-companies. Accessed 16 January 2023.

1840s —Ralph, Michael, and William Rankin. “Decoder: The Slave Insurance Market.” Foreign Policy, 16 Jan. 2017, foreignpolicy.com/2017/01/16/decoder-slave-insurance-market-aetna-aig-new-york-life.
1863 —

“What Is Juneteenth? – Juneteenth World Wide Celebration.” Juneteenth, www.juneteenth.com/history. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021.

“Emancipation Proclamation.” HISTORY, 17 June 2021, www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/emancipation-proclamation.

1865 —History.com Editors. “Black Codes.” HISTORY, 21 Jan. 2021, www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-codes.
1875 —

Wolff, Megan. “The Myth Of The Actuary: Life Insurance And Frederick L. Hoffman’s Race Traits And Tendencies Of The American Negro.” NCBI, 2006, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497788.

“U.S. Senate: Landmark Legislation: Civil Rights Act of 1875.” United States Senate, 2 Jan. 2020, www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/CivilRightsAct1875.htm.

Wright-Mendoza, Jessie. “How Insurance Companies Used Bad Science to Discriminate.” JSTOR Daily, 18 Feb. 2019, daily.jstor.org/how-insurance-companies-used-bad-science-to-discriminate.

1880 —

Wolff, Megan. “The Myth Of The Actuary: Life Insurance And Frederick L. Hoffman’s Race Traits And Tendencies Of The American Negro.” NCBI, 2006, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497788.

Ekuonline. “The History of Policing in the United States, Part 1.” EKU Online, 20 Aug. 2021, ekuonline.eku.edu/blog/police-studies/the-history-of-policing-in-the-united-states-part-1.

Waxman, Olivia. “How the U.S. Got Its Police Force.” Time, Time USA, LLC, 18 May 2017, time.com/4779112/police-history-origins.

Hassett-Walker, Connie. “The Racist Roots of American Policing: From Slave Patrols to Traffic Stops.” The Conversation, 4 June 2019, theconversation.com/the-racist-roots-of-american-policing-from-slave-patrols-to-traffic-stops-112816.

1890 —

Law Library of Louisiana. “LibGuides: Literacy Tests: Louisiana’s Legal Barriers.” The Law Library of Louisiana, 2021, lasc.libguides.com/c.php?g=940581&p=6825590.

Cianci Salvatore, Susan, et al. “Civil Rights in America: Racial Voting Rights.” National Park Service, National Historic Landmarks Program, 2009, www.nps.gov/subjects/tellingallamericansstories/upload/CivilRights_VotingRights.pdf.

1896 —Wolff, Megan. “The Myth Of The Actuary: Life Insurance And Frederick L. Hoffman’s Race Traits And Tendencies Of The American Negro.” NCBI, 2006, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497788.
1900s
1900 —

Maloney, Thomas. “African Americans in the Twentieth Century.” Economic History Association, eh.net/encyclopedia/african-americans-in-the-twentieth-century. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021.

Johnson, James. “The Black National Anthem •.” Blackpast, 10 June 2019, www.blackpast.org/black-past-features/black-national-anthem.

1910 —

Brown, DeNeen. “Remembering ‘Red Summer,’ When White Mobs Massacred Blacks from Tulsa to D.C.” History, 4 May 2021, www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/remembering-red-summer-white-mobs-massacred-blacks-tulsa-dc.

Garrison, Arthur. “Your View: A History of White Race Riots in America.” The Morning Call, 12 June 2020, www.tribpub.com/gdpr/mcall.com.

“Ku Klux Klan.” HISTORY, 20 Apr. 2021, www.history.com/topics/reconstruction/ku-klux-klan.

1914 —Bryan, Charles A., FCAS. “100 Years of Expertise, Insight, and Solutions - A History of the Casualty Actuarial Society”. 2014, https://www.casact.org/sites/default/files/2021-03/Centennial_Book_Complete.pdf.
1930 —

“A ‘Forgotten History’ Of How The U.S. Government Segregated America.” NPR, 3 May 2017, choice.npr.org/index.html?origin=https://www.npr.org/2017/05/03/526655831/a-forgotten-history-of-how-the-u-s-government-segregated-america.

Madrigal, Alexis. “The Racist Housing Policy That Made Your Neighborhood.” The Atlantic, 27 July 2021, www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2014/05/the-racist-housing-policy-that-made-your-neighborhood/371439.

1938 —Kickler, Troy. “Asa Spaulding (1902–1990).” North Carolina History Project, 7 Mar. 2016, northcarolinahistory.org/encyclopedia/asa-spaulding-1902-1990.
1944 —

Blakemore, Erin. “How the GI Bill’s Promise Was Denied to a Million Black WWII Veterans.” HISTORY, 20 Apr. 2021, www.history.com/news/gi-bill-black-wwii-veterans-benefits.

Joseph Thompson, Mississippi State University. “The Blinding of a WWII Vet Opened America’s Eyes to the Evil of Jim Crow.” Military Times, 10 Nov. 2019, www.militarytimes.com/military-honor/salute-veterans/2019/11/10/the-gi-bill-shouldve-been-race-neutral-politicos-made-sure-it-wasnt.

“The Impact of Structural Racism on Black Americans (Report).” Catalyst, 15 June 2021, www.catalyst.org/research/structural-racism-black-americans.

Barr, Andrew, et al. “YOU CAN’T HANDLE THE TRUTH: THE EFFECTS OF THE GI BILL ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND EARNINGS.” Syracuse University Maxwell School of Citizenship & Public Affairs, www.maxwell.syr.edu/uploadedFiles/econ/seminars/Paper%20-%20Sacerdote.pdf. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021.

1946 —

“Records of the President’s Committee on Civil Rights Record Group 220 | Harry S. Truman.” Harry S. Truman Library Museum, www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/federal-record/records-presidents-committee-civil-rights-record-group-220. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021.

“To Secure These Rights | Harry S. Truman.” Harry S. Truman Library Museum, www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/to-secure-these-rights. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021.

1952 —

McLellan, Laurie. “Pioneering CAS Fellows: Linda Shepherd and Ollie Sherman Reflect on their Careers.” Actuarial Review Magazine, Casualty Actuarial Society, 27 January 2021, ar.casact.org/pioneering-cas-fellows-linda-shepherd-and-ollie-sherman-reflect-on-their-careers/. Accessed 6 January 2023.

“The SOA’s First Black Fellow.” The Actuary Magazine, Society of Actuaries, August/September 2019, www.theactuarymagazine.org/the-soas-first-black-fellow/. Accessed 16 January 2023.

1964 —

Heen, Mary. “Ending Jim Crow Life Insurance Rates.” Northwestern Journal of Law & Social Policy, 2009, scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=njlsp.

“Civil Rights Act of 1964.” HISTORY, 25 Jan. 2021, www.history.com/topics/black-history/civil-rights-act.

1964 —

Mbm. “The Consequences of the 1960’s Race Riots Come Into View.” AfricanAmerica.Org, 30 Dec. 2004, www.africanamerica.org/topic/the-consequences-of-the-1960s-race-riots-come-into-view.

“Why People Rioted After Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Assassination.” HISTORY, 17 June 2021, www.history.com/news/mlk-assassination-riots-occupation.

Garrison, Arthur. “Your View: A History of White Race Riots in America.” The Morning Call, 12 June 2020, www.tribpub.com/gdpr/mcall.com.

1968 —

“History of Fair Housing - HUD | HUD.Gov / U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD).” U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, www.hud.gov/program_offices/fair_housing_equal_opp/aboutfheo/history. Accessed 20 Sept. 2021.

Capps, Kriston. “How the Fair Housing Act Failed Black Homeowners.” Bloomberg, 11 Apr. 2018, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-11/50-years-after-the-fair-housing-act-redlining-persists.

1992 —Arland, Jamala & Deeble, Jason. “A Tale of Two Actuaries.” International Association of Black Actuaries, 6 October 2020, cdn.ymaws.com/www.blackactuaries.org/resource/resmgr/newsletters/a_tale_of_two_actuaries.pdf. Accessed 16 January 2023.
2000s
2000 —The Poynter Institute. “Maligned in Black and White: Southern Newspapers Played a Major Role in Racial Violence. Do They Owe Their Communities an Apology?” Poynter, 1 Sept. 2020, www.poynter.org/maligned-in-black-white.
2015 —

Feltner, Tom, and Douglas Heller. “High Price of Mandatory Auto Insurance in Predominantly African American Communities.” Consumer Federation of America, Nov. 2015, consumerfed.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/151118_insuranceinpredominantlyafricanamericancommunities_CFA.pdf.

ProPublica. “Minority Neighborhoods Pay Higher Car Insurance Premiums Than White Areas With the Same Risk.” ProPublica, 29 Feb. 2020, www.propublica.org/article/minority-neighborhoods-higher-car-insurance-premiums-white-areas-same-risk.

2018 —

“The Journey of African-American Insurance Professionals.” Marsh &McLennan Companies, September 2018, www.marsh.com/us/about/about-marsh/diversity-and-inclusion-marsh/insights/the-journey-of-african-american-insurance-professionals.html. Accessed 6 January 2023.

“Actuarial Organizations Explore Ways to Support Inclusion and Diversity Within the Profession.” Casualty Actuarial Society, 13 December 2017, www.casact.org/article/actuarial-organizations-explore-ways-support-inclusion-and-diversity-within-profession. Accessed 16 January 2023.

Arland, Jamala & Deeble, Jason. “A Tale of Two Actuaries.” International Association of Black Actuaries, 6 October 2020, cdn.ymaws.com/www.blackactuaries.org/resource/resmgr/newsletters/a_tale_of_two_actuaries.pdf. Accessed 16 January 2023.

2019 —

“H.R.1270 - 117th Congress (2021–2022): PAID Act.” Congress.Gov | Library of Congress, 2021, www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/1270.

“H.R.1756 - 116th Congress (2019–2020): Preventing Credit Score Discrimination in Auto Insurance Act.” Congress.Gov | Library of Congress, 2019, www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/1756.

2022 —

Thompson, Stafford Jr. “The Changing Face of the Actuarial Profession.” The Actuary Magazine, Society of Actuaries, August 2022, www.theactuarymagazine.org/the-changing-face-of-the-actuarial-profession/. Accessed 6 January 2023.

“Research Paper Series on Race and Insurance Pricing.” Casualty Actuarial Society, March 2022, www.casact.org/publications-research/research/research-paper-series-race-and-insurance-pricing. Accessed 16 January 2023.

2023 —

“Underwriting Souls.” Black Beyond Data, November 2023, underwritingsouls.org. Accessed November 30, 2023.

“Learning from our Past.” Lloyds, November 2023, www.lloyds.com/about-lloyds/history/the-trans-atlantic-slave-trade/learning-from-our-past. Accessed November 30, 2023.